ON THE MONASTIC VOCATION

An Old Russian Icon of Christ Tonsuring Monks into the Great Schema, the Last and Greatest Order of Monasticism within the Eastern Orthodox Church

By Bp. Joseph (Ancient Church of the West) 

INTRODUCTION

Monastic life within our Western Orthodox Church reveals an icon of beauty and benefit, providing a sacred path for those not called to the vocation of marriage. Rooted in biblical teachings and shaped by the wisdom of the Church Fathers, monasticism offers a profound response to the call of Christian discipleship.

The emergence of monasticism, both hermitic and cenobitic, finds its roots in the victory of Christianity over the Roman Empire. This ascetic tradition arose as a reaction against perceived corruption in the State Church, echoing the words of St. Paul: "Do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewal of your mind" (Romans 12:2). The Desert Fathers, influenced by St. Anthony of Egypt, embodied the essence of monastic life, seeking solitude and spiritual communion to escape worldly distractions.

The biblical narrative underscores the normative state of marriage and family, evident in God's first command to Adam and Eve: "Be fruitful and multiply" (Genesis 1:28). Monasticism, however, is a form of self-emptying (skenosis), echoing Christ's own self-sacrifice for humanity: "Who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied himself" (Philippians 2:6-7). This profound self-emptying, while certainly possible within married life, is easily practiced within the ascetical tradition of Christian monasticism, which makes it a valuable part of Church life. 

THE EXAMPLE OF CHRIST, JOHN THE BAPTIST AND THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY 

Monasticism, deeply rooted in the biblical narrative and the wisdom of the Church Fathers, strives to emulate the very lifestyle of Jesus Christ. As highlighted in Scripture, Christ Himself declared, "Foxes have holes, and birds of the air have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head" (Matthew 8:20). This echoes the simplicity and detachment from material possessions that characterize monastic life. The Gospels further portray Christ's modest approach to clothing, food, and fasting during His time in the desert, illustrating the ascetic principles embraced by monastics. The profound moment in the desert, where Christ resists Satan's temptations, becomes a guiding light for monastic living. When faced with the illegitimate temptations of power, wealth, and glory, Christ firmly declares, "Be gone, Satan! For it is written, 'You shall worship the Lord your God and him only shall you serve'" (Matthew 4:10). Monasticism perceives its liturgical and ritual practices as a living enactment of this dramatic narrative from Christ's life. By adhering to the monastic way of life, individuals participate in a personal and meaningful reenactment of Christ's journey, finding inspiration and strength in His example to resist the allure of worldly temptations and live a life centered on devotion, humility, and self-sacrifice.

Ancient monasticism draws profound inspiration from the life and message of St. John the Baptist. As the forerunner of Christ, St. John exemplified a life of ascetic simplicity, residing in the wilderness, clothed in camel's hair, and sustaining himself with locusts and wild honey (Matthew 3:4). His rigorous asceticism and detachment from worldly comforts served as a beacon for early monastics, who sought to emulate his dedication to God. St. John's call to repentance and preparation for the coming Messiah resonated deeply with the monastic ethos, emphasizing the need for a radical transformation of the inner self. The monastic pursuit of solitude and contemplation, paralleling St. John's withdrawal to the desert, reflects an earnest desire for spiritual purification and closeness to God. By adopting St. John the Baptist as a spiritual guide, ancient monasticism found inspiration in his unwavering commitment to righteousness, humility, and the singular focus on preparing the way for the Lord.

An Anonymous Deesis Icon from the 12th Century Russian Church of Nicholas Kozhe of Muscovy, Showing the Central Figure of Christ, Flanked by the Theotokos and St. John the Baptist 

The Blessed Virgin Mary stands as a paradigm for Christian monasticism, particularly illuminating the path of female ascetic practices within the Ancient Church. Drawing inspiration from the Virgin Mary's profound commitment to God, consecrated Virgins in the early Christian era found a spiritual model in her life. The practice of consecrated Virgin life has roots in the Jewish tradition, notably among the Essenes and the Therapeutae described by Philo and St. Clement of Alexandria, which was also confirmed in the Protoevangelium of St. James. This sacred text recounts the childhood of the Blessed Virgin Mary, spent in dedication within the Temple of Jerusalem. The legacy of consecrated Virgins continued in the New Testament and the Early Church, where women like Sts. Thecla, Katherine, Agnes, Agatha, Cecilia, Sophia, Lucia, and Barbara embraced a life of virginity and asceticism. In the first three centuries of Christian history, these renowned virgin martyrs exemplified unwavering faith and commitment to Christ. Female ascetics, following in the footsteps of the Virgin Mary, served the early Church as Deaconesses, later on living as nuns within an ascetic community, dedicating their lives to caring for the needs of women and children in the local parish. The Virgin Mary's life, intertwined with the rich tradition of consecrated Virgins, serves as an enduring inspiration for women pursuing a path of dedicated and ascetic service within the Christian monastic tradition.

SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE EARLY CHURCH

St. Anthony of Egypt, also known as St. Anthony the Great, played a pivotal role in popularizing monasticism in the Early Church. Born in the 3rd century, Anthony lived an ascetic life in the Egyptian desert, seeking spiritual solitude and communion with God. Renowned for his deep contemplation, rigorous ascetic practices, and encounters with demons, St. Anthony's experiences became widely known. His profound commitment to a life of prayer, fasting, and simplicity inspired many to follow his example. Pilgrims sought his guidance, and his wisdom was recorded in the influential work "Sayings of the Desert Fathers." St. Anthony's impact on monasticism extended beyond his own time, influencing subsequent generations of monks and hermits. His legacy helped shape the Desert Fathers' movement, contributing significantly to the growth and acceptance of monasticism within the Early Church.

Cenobitic or communal monasticism mirrors the intimate community of a family, echoing the early Christian sentiment that families are "little Churches." Cenobitic monasticism is often attributed to St. Pachomius, an Egyptian monk who lived in the 4th century. St. Pachomius is credited with founding the first cenobitic monastery, where monks lived together in a communal setting, sharing resources, prayers, and a common rule of life. His establishment of this communal form of monasticism marked a significant development in the history of Christian asceticism and laid the foundation for the cenobitic monastic tradition. This theme was taken up by the Latin scholar-monk, St. Benedict of Nursia. In the early 6th century, St. Benedict founded the Monte Cassino monastery in Italy and developed the Rule of St. Benedict, a set of guidelines for communal living and spiritual discipline. The Rule became highly influential and served as a model for many Western monastic communities. St. Benedict's emphasis on stability, community life, and a balanced approach to work and prayer greatly contributed to the spread and endurance of cenobitic monasticism in the Western Christian tradition.

St. Benedict's Rule provides a structured family framework for those outside of normal family life, drawing parallels with the Christian Roman economia of the domestic home. Forming households of believers who hold all things in common also follows the example of the Early Church in the Book of Acts, when everyone sold everything they had and gave it to the Church, taking care of the poor and needy, and preparing for the imminent return of our Lord (Acts 2:44-45). The Apostle Paul's guidance echoes this sentiment: "But if anyone does not provide for those depending on him, and especially for members of his own household, he has denied the faith" (1 Timothy 5:8).

MONASTICISM AND THE CHURCH COUNCILS 

Drawing from Patristic wisdom, the Council of Gangra condemned the fear or disgust of marriage as motivation for celibate clergy, emphasizing the sanctity of marital commitment. The Council of Chalcedon later affirmed the ecumenical status of Gangra, solidifying the importance of this stance. The biblical foundation remains clear: "A bishop must be the husband of one wife" (1 Timothy 3:2). While a bishop may be chosen from the ranks of the monastics, to require all bishops to be monastic breaks with the biblical command of the great Apostle Paul, who otherwise preferred celibacy and saw it as a great gift (I Corinthians 7). 

The role of monasticism evolved significantly throughout the Seven Ecumenical Councils, witnessing a transformation from an initially adversarial position against bishops during the 3rd and 4th centuries to a notable influence in subsequent councils. The Council of Trullo, also known as the Quinisext Council, held in the late 7th century, marked a crucial turning point. During this council, monasticism saw a substantial increase in authority, eventually leading to a shift where monks played a prominent role in ecclesiastical governance. Notably, the Council of Trullo solidified certain canons that, among other things, excluded married men from serving as bishops, aligning with the political agenda of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. Justinian's desire to marginalize the sons of high clergy and prevent them from wielding influence in imperial affairs resulted in a rejection of married candidates for significant positions within the Church. This move marked a significant shift in the dynamics between monasticism and the episcopacy, reflecting the interplay of religious and political interests during this period in Byzantine history. This led to substantial abuses of the monastic practice, saw the conversion of many large family farms into tax-free monasteries, and eventually led to the population collapse that directly contributed to the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire to the Turks in AD 1453. 

MONASTIC ABUSE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL NEUROSIS 

While monasticism has provided spiritual fulfillment for many, it is important to acknowledge the potential negative consequences and abuses that can arise within such ascetic communities without proper oversight or accountability. The strict ascetic practices and isolation prevalent in some monastic environments may foster emotional codependency, where individuals become excessively reliant on the approval and structure of the monastic community and leaders for their emotional well-being, truly unable to function as mature adults. Many contemporary Orthodox monastic movements have cult-like and schismatic aspects, due to charismatic and dynamic leaders, abbots or elders having too much authority and demanding control for their own advantage, not the salvation of their followers. Extreme introversion may result from prolonged periods of solitude, leading to difficulties in interpersonal relationships and social integration. Mental breakdowns and suicides are unfortunately not unheard of in some of the more extreme monasteries recently established in the US by Athonite elders. Additionally, the emphasis on asceticism might contribute to unhealthy behaviors such as anorexia and masochistic tendencies, stemming from a distorted view of self and the body. The suppression of natural human desires, especially those of a sexual nature, may also lead to sexual repression, perversion, and, in some cases, hidden homosexuality. Monks must remember St. Paul’s advice in I Corinthians 7, where he recommends that celibacy be embraced by those who do not “burn.” Those who struggle unsuccessfully against heterosexual passions should marry and find sanctification and satisfaction through that noble vocation. Historical records are full of accusations leveled against monasteries as being hotbeds for inappropriate same-sex activity, and with the elevation of monasticism as the only qualifying factor for most episcopal elections, closeted men are often very motivated to enter the ranks of monastics for the purpose of gaining political power and control. Furthermore, the “sour grapes attitude” that many male monks take towards women that they could not have or did not want also fosters misogynistic tendencies that negatively affect the whole Church. It is crucial for monastic communities to be aware of these potential psychological and spiritual challenges and implement practices that prioritize the mental and emotional well-being of their members, focusing on the positive interaction between monastics and married Christians, service in the local parishes, and an understanding of how both married and unmarried believers need one another. 

THE THERAPEUTIC ROLE OF MONASTICISM 

Monastic life, when it is focused on Scripture, prayer, sacraments, work, and community, becomes a therapeutic haven for those grappling with various mental and spiritual challenges, particularly for men who are on the Autism spectrum or dealing with Aspergers. Monasticism was also a place of recovery for those dealing with past abuse, such as men or women recovering from slavery, sexual abuse, or prostitution. One famous example in the great monk St. Paphnutios, who may have been a male prostitute as a slave in his youth, but was redeemed by belief and baptism, and went on to counsel those dealing with same-sex attraction. For those dealing with attractions that cannot be morally fulfilled, monasticism is the best and most positive lifestyle, since it provides accountability, support, positive input and a solid, constructive, spirit-filled pathway to sanctification. The Apostle Paul's exhortation becomes relevant: "Finally, brothers, whatever is true, whatever is honorable, whatever is just, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is commendable, if there is any excellence, if there is anything worthy of praise, think about these things" (Philippians 4:8). The single purpose of monastic life is to center one’s whole being on these good things and to “be transformed by the renewing of your mind” (Romans 12:2). 

SUMMARY 

In embracing monasticism as a gift to the Church, Christians find inspiration in the lives of Sts. John the Baptist, the Apostle Paul, and the Virgin Mary—figures who embody diverse paths and stories within the Faith. Monastics, although not following the marital norm of the great Patriarchs like Abraham and Moses, contribute to the Church with love, ministry, appreciation, and equality of all baptized believers. And while the Apostles Sts. Peter, Andrew and James were known to be married, and show that the Early Church was established upon a married episcopacy, there is an equal place of value and access given to all those called to the monastic vocation. The essence of monasticism within Orthodoxy is a meaningful, therapeutic, accountable, and responsible way of life for Christians not called to marriage, painting in the rich colors and forms of the Church's great icon of the Heavenly Kingdom! 

Brethren, let us pray for more monastic vocations within our blessed Church, as we seek to provide a pathway for all the world to be saved!